1	Early Aids To Calculation Thomas J. Bergin ©Computer History Museum American University
2	Quipu
3	Pebbles -Calculus: n; pl. calculi, calculuses (Latin, calculus, a small stone or pebble used in reckoning; diminutive of calx, calcis -- a stone) 1. A small stone or pebble 2. Any hard, solid concentration or deposit or any part of the body… 3. In higher mathematics, (a) a method of calculation; (b) the use of symbols: (c) a method of analysis;… --Webster's New Twentieth Century Unabridged Dictionary
4	"Calculus of Finite Differences" Calculus of Finite Differences Calculus of Functions Calculus of Imaginaries Calculus of Operations Calculus of Probability Calculus of Variations Differential Calculus Integral Calculus
5	Abacus 3000 BCE, early form of beads on wires, used in China From semitic abaq, meaning dust.
6	Table Abacus 100,000 ------l--- l----------------------------- 50,000 ----- l------------------------------------ 10,000 ----- l--- l--- l---------------------- 5,000 ----- l------------------------------------ 1,000 ----- l--- l----------------------------- 500 -------------------------------------------- 100 ----- l--- l--- l--- l--------------- 50 ----- l--- -------------------------------- 10 -------------------------------------------- 5 -------------------------------------------- 1 ----- l--- l-----------------------------
7	The “Office” Medieval counting boards with minted counters (c 1200 Italy) Origin of: “a counting” to cast up an account to cast a horoscope jetons, from the French jeter, verb: to throw
8	Chinese Swan Pan
9	Exercise 1: Using an Abacus Using an abacus calculate: 12 + 15 35 - 22 24 X 33 89 / 12
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11	Russian Abacus Essentially a counting device Still in use in Russia and environs today!
12	Japanese Soroban
13	Indian bead abacus
14	Finger Reckoning “Educated” people memorized up to 5 times 5 Assume fingers = 5 + number extended: \| \| is seven (five plus two) \| \| \| is eight (five plus three) Add the extended fingers and multiply the folded fingers!
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16	Finger Reckoning 0 to 5 memorized 6 to 10 10(e + e’) + cc’ 11 to 15 10(e + e’) + cc’ + 100 16 to 20 20(e + e’) + cc’ + 200 21 to 25 20(e + e’) + cc’ + 400 26 to 30 30(e + e’) + cc’ + 600
17	Exercise 2: Finger Reckoning Multiply: 9 times 9 8 times 8 7 times 7 6 times 6 6 times 5
18	John Napier (1550-1617) Napier’s Cannon of Logarithms 1614 Numbers in an arithmetic series are the logarithms of other numbers in a geometric series, to a suitable base. Napier’s Rabdologia 1617 aka Napier’s “Bones” Multiplicationis Promptuarium
19	Mirifici Logarithorum Canonis Descriptio Description of the Admirable Cannon of Logarithms Natural numbers: 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 a geometric series: previous times 2 Base 2 logarithms: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 arithmetic series: 2⁰ = 1, 2¹ = 2, 2² = 4, 2³ = 8, 2⁴ = 16, etc. Multiplication: 8 times 16 = ???? Log(8) + log(16) = 3 + 4 = 7 (the antilog of 7 is 128)
20	Exercise 3: Using Log Tables Examine logarithm tables Multiply two numbers using logarithms
21	Napier’s Rabdologia (1617)
22	Napier’s “Bones” Made out of animal bones (ivory) About the size of a cigarette and in a leather pouch Multiples, multiples, multiples! Arrange multiplicand and read multiplier row
23	Napier’s “Bones” Multiplicand is: 423 Align bones for 4, 2 & 3 Add values on the diagonal Be careful of carries! Write down resultant
24	Partial Products
25	Square and Cube Roots
26	Exercise 4: Gelosia Method Gelosia method: 7843 X 9625 Try again with someone doing it on the blackboard!
27	Genaille-Lucas Rulers (1885)
28	Genaille-Lucas Division Rulers
29	Slide Rule Napier’s Logarithms Edmund Gunter: Gunter’s Line of Numbers (1620) William Oughtred (left) (1574? to 1660) invented the slide rule by putting Line of Numbers on top of each other Circles of Proportion, as circular slide rules (1622)
30	Logarithms and the Slide Rule Base 10 log of: 1 is 0 10 1 100 2 1000 3 10,000 4 100,000 5 1 is 0.0 2 .301 3 .477 4 .602 5 .699 6 .778 7 .845 8 .903 9 .954 10 1.000
31	Exercise 5: creating a slide rule Meter sticks Log table Measure with a compass Multiply, multiply, multiply
32	Slide Rule
33	Exercise 6: Using the slide rule Examine the slide rule Look at the scales: a, b, c, tan, etc. Multiply: 2 times 2 (place left end of slide over 2 then move cursor to 2 on the slide read down on the D scale 8 times 8 (switch start point to right end) 25 times 25 (hint: do 2.5 and then move decimal point in your head!)
34	Manheim’s “Modern” Slide Rule 1850
35	Wilhelm Schickard (1592-1635)
36	"Napier’s bones on cylinders for..." Napier’s bones on cylinders for multiplicand movable sliders to expose multiples (multiplier) gears with carry mechanism none exist; only known from drawing recreation by Dutch machinist @ 1992
37	Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
38	The problem of calculation…. Father was a tax collector in Rouen, France Pascaline, 1642 (19 years old) Carry mechanism problem: carry propagation Made 50 Pascalines
39	Blaise Pascal For after all what is man in nature? A nothing in relation to infinity, all in relation to nothing, a central point between nothing and all, and infinitely far from understanding either. The ends of things and their beginnings are impregnably concealed from him in an inpenetrable secret. He is equally incapable of seeing the nothingness out of which he was drawn and the infinite in which he is engulfed.
40	Ever forward, never backward…. Pascaline could only do addition and NOT subtraction because the gears could only turn clockwise! Complimentary arithmetic: subtraction can be effected by adding the 9’s compliment to the number. The compliment of 2 is 7, of 3 is 6, etc.
41	Complimentary Arithmetic 294736 294736 - 217485--------------->+ 782514 1077250 truncate leftmost position^ add one to rightmost position +1 077251 Check: 294736 - 217485 77251
42	Exercise 7: Complimentary Arithmetic 6874 -2846 485967 - 34556 Be sure to check your work
43	Musee des Arts et Metiers
44	Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) It is unworthy for excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used.
45	Leibniz’s Stepped Drum Calculator (1674)
46	Sources Michael R. Williams, A History of Computing Technology, IEEE Computer Society Press, 2nd edition, 1997 www.arithmeum.de, a museum for the history of calculation, in Bonn, Germany (from the collection of Proof. Bernhard Korte, University of Bonn)
47	Show and Tell Pebbles Chinese Swan Pan, Japanese Soroban Jetons Napier’s bones Arabic times table Schickard’s Calculator Pascal-like calculator from The Computer Museum Books of Logarithm tables Meter sticks and compass Slide rules
48	Laboratory 1- Using the Abacus 2- Finger Reckoning 3- Using logarithm tables 4- Gelosia Method 5- Using Meter sticks to create a slide rule 6- Using the slide rule 7- Complimentary Arithmetic