1	References Thomas J. Bergin © Computing History Museum American University
2	References: Numeration Bunch and Hellemans, The Timetables of Technology, Simon & Schuster, 1993 A major source of information about hieroglyphics can be found at: 195.8.72.23/numbers.htm ©Mark Millmore
3	References: Early Aids Michael R. Williams, A History of Computing Technology, IEEE Computer Society Press, 2nd edition, 1997 www.arithmeum.de, a museum for the history of calculation, in Bonn, Germany (from the collection of Proof. Bernhard Korte, University of Bonn)
4	References: Babbage Doron Swade, Charles Babbage and his Calculating Engines, Science Museum, London, 1991 Doron Swade, The Cogwheel Brain, Charles Babbage and the Quest to build the First Computer, Little, Brown and Company, 2000 J.A.N.Lee, Computer Pioneers, IEEE Press, 1995 Brian Randell, ed., The Origins of Digital Computers, Selected Papers, Springer, 1973 Bunch & Hellemans, The Timetables of Technology, Simon and Schuster, 1993
5	"Michael Lindgren," Michael Lindgren, Glory and Failure, The Difference Engines of Johann Mueller, Charles Babbage, and Georg and Edvard Scheutz, MIT Press, 1990 William Aspray, ed., Computing Before Computers, Iowa State University Press, 1990 Aspray and Campbell-Kelly, Computer: A History of the Information Machine, BasicBooks, 1996 Video: The Machine That Changed the World, first 10 minutes
6	Babbage Biographies Anthony Hyman, Charles Babbage: pioneer of the computer, Princeton U Press, 1982 Maboth Mosley, Irascible genius: a life of Charles Babbage, inventor, London, Hutchinson, 1964 Dorothy Stein, Ada: a life and legacy, MIT Press, 1985 Doris Langley Moore, Ada, Countess of Lovelace: Byron’s legitimate daughter, London, John Murray, 1977
7	References: Hollerith Geoffrey D. Austrian, HERMAN HOLLERITH: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing, Columbia U. Press, 1982 (definitive work) Biles, et al, “Herman Hollerith: Inventor, Manager, Entrepreneur -- A Centennial Remembrance,” Journal of Management, Vol. 15, No.4, 1989 Keith Reid-Green, “The History of Census Tabulation,” Scientific American, February 1989 Bache, IBM’s Early Computers, MIT Press, 1986. Campbell-Kelly in Aspray, Computing Before Computers, Iowa State U. Press, 1990
8	Hollerith Biographies: William Rogers, THINK, A biography of the Watsons and IBM, Stein and Day, 1969 Belden and Belden, The Lengthening Shadow: The Life of Thomas J. Watson, Little Brown, 1962 Thomas Watson, Jr.., Father, Son and Company, Bantam, 19908
9	References: Information Appliances National Geographic Society, Inventors and Discoverers, Changing Our World, 1988 Steven Lubar, Information Appliances, 1994 James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society, Harvard U. Press, 1986
10	Office Appliances References James W. Cortada, Before the Computer, Princeton University Press, 1993 Michael Williams, “Early Calculators,” in Aspray, ed., Computing Before Computers, Iowa State University Press, 1990
11	Office Appliances References John Brooks, Telephone, The First Hundred Years, Harper & Row, 1975 Edwin Darby, It All Adds Up, the Growth of the Victor Comptometer Company, Victor Comptometer Company, 1968 Stanley C. Allyn, My half century with NCR, McGraw-Hill, 1967 Bryan Morgan, Total to Date, Burroughs Adding Machine London, 1953
12	References: Analog Computers “Analog Computing Devices,” by Allan G. Bromley in William Aspray, ed. Computing Before Computers, Iowa State U. Press, 1990 “The Analog Animals,” in Michael R. Williams, History of Computing Technology, IEEE Press, 1997 J. Crank, The Differential Analyzer, Longmans, Green, 1947 D.R. Hartree, Calculating Instruments and Machines, U. Of Illinois Press, 1953
13	References: Mechanical Monsters Paul E. Ceruzzi, “Electronic Calculators,” in Aspray, Computing Before Computers, Iowa State University Press, 1990 Paul E. Ceruzzi, Reckoners: The Prehistory of the Digital Computer, from Relays to the Stored Program Concept, 1935-1945, Greenwood Press, 1983 Brian Randell, The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers, Springer, 1982
14	References: Mechanical Monsters Stibitz, “Automatic Computing Machinery,” in Randell, Origins...., (essay written in 1940) Stibitz, “Automatic Computing Machinery,” in Annals, 4/ 2 (April 1982) 1947 and 1950 memos Stibitz, “Early Computers,” in N. Metropolis, A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century, Academic Press, 1980 Charles J. Bashe, et al, IBM’s Early Computers, MIT Press, 1986
15	References: Mechanical Monsters www.arithmeum.de www.hnf.de/museum http://irb.cs.tu-berlin.de/~zuse/Konrad_Zuse
16	Mechanical Monsters Biographies Konrad Zuse, The Computer, My Life, I. Bernard Cohen, Howard Aiken: Portrait of a Computer Pioneer, MIT Press, 1999J.A.N. Lee, Computer Pioneers, IEEE Press, 1995 Charlene W. Billings, Grace Hopper, Navy Admiral & Computer Pioneer, Enslow Publishers, 1989. Herbert R. J. Grosch, Computer: Bit Slices From a Life, Third Millennium Books, 1991
17	References: Atanasoff J.V. Atanasoff, “Computing Machine for the Solution of large Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations,” (August 1940) in Randell (Ed.), The Origins of Digital Computers, Selected Papers, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1973 J.V. Atanasoff, “Advent of Electronic Digital Computing,” Annals, Vol..6, No.3 (July 1984)
18	References: Atanasoff Saul Rosen, “The Origins of Modern Computing, ACM Computing Reviews, Sept. 1960 Joel Shurkin, Engines of the Mind, The Evolution of the Computer from Mainframes to Microprocessors, W.W. Norton, 1984 Allan R. Mackintosh, Dr. Atanasoff’s Computer,” Scientific American, August 1988 Allan R. Mackintosh, “The First Electronic Computer,” Physics Today, March 1987
19	References: Atanasoff R.K. Richards, Electronic Digital Systems, New York, Wiley (1966) ACM Computing Reviews, September 1990
20	Atanasoff Biography Clark R. Mollenhoff, ATANASOFF, Forgotten Father of the Computer, Iowa State University Press, 1988. Alice R. And Arthur W. Burks, The First Electronic Computer: The Atanasoff Story, U. of Michigan Press, 1988
21	References: ENIAC Nancy Stern, From ENIAC to UNIVAC, An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers, Digital Press, 1981 [major research effort] Herman H. Goldstine, The Computer, from Pascal to von Neumann, Princeton University Press, 1972 Goldstine was a participant N. Metropolis, et.al., A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century, Academic Press, 1980 Brian Randell, ed., The Origins of Digital Computers, Springer-Verlag, 1973
22	References: ENIAC Arthur W. Burks and Alice R. Burks, “The ENIAC: First General-Purpose Electronic Computer,” Annals, Vol.3, No.4 [participant] Barkley Fritz, “ENIAC--A Problem Solver,” Annals, Vol.16, No. 1 (1994) [worked on ENIAC] Barkley Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC,” Annals, Vol.18, No.3 (Fall 1996) Herman H. Goldstine, “Computers at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore School, 1943-1946, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol 136, No1 (1992) [participant]
23	IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 18/1, Spring 1996 H.H. Goldstine, “The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC),” pp. 10-16. Dilys Winegrad, “The Birth of Modern Computing: The Fiftieth Anniversary of a Discovery At The Moore School of Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania,” pp..5-9. Mitchell Marcus and Atsushi Akera, “Exploring The Architecture of an Early Machine: The Historical Significance of the ENIAC Machine Architecture, pp.. 17-24
24	IEEE Annals, 18/1, Spring 1996 Peter Eckstein, “J. Presper Eckert,” pp..25-44 John Costello, “As the Twig is Bent: The Early Life of John Mauchly,” pp.45-50 David Alan Grier, “The ENIAC, the Verb “to program” and the Emergence of Digital Computers,” pp.51-55
25	References: ENIAC Nancy B. Stern, From ENIAC to UNIVAC, An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers, Digital Press, 1981 Kathleen R. Mauchly, “John Mauchly’s Early Years, Annals, Vol.6, No.2 (April 1984) Herman Goldstine, From Pascal to von Neumann, Princeton University Press, 1972 Emerson Pugh, Memories that Shaped an Industry, MIT Press, 1984
26	References: Other Early Projects Redmond & Smith, Project Whirlwind, The History of A Pioneer Computer, Digital Press, 1980. I. Bernard Cohen, Howard Aiken, Portrait of A Computer Pioneer, MIT Press, 1999 William Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing, MIT Press
27	References: UK Computing Caminer, et al, LEO, The Incredible Story of the World’s First Business Computer, McGraw-Hill, 1998 Lavington, Early British Computers, Digital Press, 1980 Hendry, Innovating for Failure: Government Policy and the Early British Computer Industry, MIT Press, 1989.
28	References: Mainframe Maurice V. Wilkes, Memoirs of a Computer Pioneer, MIT Press, 1985 David E. Lundstrom, A Few Good Men from Univac, MIT Press, 1987 Charles J. Bashe, et.al, IBM’s Early Computers, MIT Press, 1986 Emerson Pugh, et.al., IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems, MIT Press, 1991
29	References: Transistors Photos courtesy of Lucent Technologies and other web sources Bunch and Hellemans, The Timetables of Technology, Simon and Schuster, 1993 Lee, J.A.N., Computer Pioneers, IEEE Press, 1995
30	References: Minicomputers Pearson (ed), Digital At Work: Snapshots from the first thirty-five years, Digital Press, 1992 Shurkin, Engines of the Mind, the evolution of the Computer from Mainframes to Microprocessors, W.W. Norton, 1984 Gordon Bell et al, Computer Engineering: A DEC View of Hardware Systems Design
31	References: Microcomputers Freiberger and Swaine, Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 1984 Bunch and Hellemans, The Timetables of Technology, Simon and Schuster, 1993 Lee, J.A.N., Computer Pioneers, IEEE Press, 1995